Project sammordnare:	Independent visual arts of soul Africa(IVASA)
Project Leader:	Osaremhen Okodugha
Project Secretary:	Gloria Tikolo Ntombekaya
Project namn:	Lack of clean water
Kontaktperson:	Osaremhen Okodugha Independent visual arts of soul africa(IVASA) Box 6109 141 06 Kungens kurva Tfn: + 46 762 90 23 88 Fax: + 46 8 646 45 84 Org. Nr. 802405-0612 Postgiro:414 0550-7 Kultur.ivasa@gmail.com
	and
	Gloria Tikolo Ntombekaya
Sammordnare:	Syd-centre, Manuel(kontaknät på eget språk) och studieförbundet vuxenskolan.

 

INTRODUCTION

 

 

 

Up to one million Central Africans do not have access to clean water and therefore are highly vulnerable to threat of deadly waterborne diseases because of the conflict threatening their country, United Nations relief agencies reported recently.

The office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) said the situation was worst in the northeast of the Central African republic (CAR), where fighting between Government forces and rebels and attacks by local bandits have forced thousands of people out of their villages to seek shelter in the nearby bush.

The insecurity is so widespread across the north of the country that many Central Africans there are too afraid to return to their villages, instead resorting to stagnant pools or rivers in the bush areas for their water supplies. Those that have remained in their villages often face wells that are not working.  

 

0CHA said that in Haute-Kotto prefecture, which borders Sudan, only 1 per cent of the entire population has regular access to potable water. Toby Lenzer the UN Humanitarian Coordinator in the CAR, said that “People are dying for want of clean water. If our water projects get the support we have asked for on time, the coordination mechanisms that we have put in place will allow us to provide safe water to over 250,000 people in 2008”.So far, only three out of 10 projects designed by UN agencies or by non-governmental organisations (NGOs) to improve access to clean water and sanitation across the northern CAR this year have received any funding. The situation is particularly acute because the dry season normally ends in April, and thus the window of opportunity for projects to be implemented.

 

The UN Children’s Fund (UNICEF) is leading a water alliance “ of 14 aid organizations that are trying to coordinate their efforts in the water, sanitation and hygiene (WATSAN) sector in the CAR, one of the world’s poorest nations. Organizations in the partnership work together to repair and drill wells and boreholes and to provide power pumps.

 

Under- Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs John Holmes, who is also UN Emergency relief Coordinator, welcomed the formation of the alliance.

Having a clear leader of the water, sanitation and hygiene team responsible for coordinating the other organisations involved  and  providing relief when nobody else is able to, allows us to save many more lives”. He said Overall, the UN and NGOs have appealed for $96.2 million to help with their humanitarian efforts in the CAR this year. This figure includes $5.6 million dedicated to water and sanitation projects.

 

PROBLEMS FACED BY HUMAN KIND

Killer diseases

 

The World Health Organisation says that every year more than 3.4 million people die as a result of water related diseases, making it the leading cause of diseases and death around the world. Most of the victims are young children, the vast majority of whom die of illnesses caused by organisms that thrive in water sources contaminated by raw sewage. VOA’s Jessica Berman has more on the story. A report published recently in the medical journal The Lancet concluded that poor water sanitation and a lack of safe drinking water take a greater human toll than war, terrorism and weapons of mass destruction combined.

 

According to an assessment commissioned by the United Nations, 4,000 children die each day as a result of diseases caused by ingestion of filthy water. The report says  four out of every 10 people in the world, particularly those in Africa and Asia, do not have clean water to drink.

Resources Analyst Eric Peterson, of the centre for  Strategic and international Studies in Washington, describes the water crisis this way: ‘At any given time, close to half the population of the developing world is suffering from waterborne diseases associated with inadequate provision of water and sanitation services”, Mr Peterson explained “ There are about four billion cases of diarrhoea disease per year, resulting in about one or two  million deaths, some ninety per cent of which tragically, are in children under the age of five.”

 

Cholera, typhoid fever and hepatitis A are caused by bacteria, and are among the most common diarrhoea diseases and other illnesses such as dysentery, are caused by parasites that live in water, contaminated by the faeces of sick individuals. Lakes and streams which people use for drinking water, bathing and defecating are sources of disease as is water left by disasters. Tsunami left victims in ankle-deep water, amid destroyed sewage pipes.

People can also contract diarrhoea disease by eating food that’s prepared by sick individuals who have not washed their hands, or touching something handled by an infected person and then putting their own hands into their mouths.

Maria Smith-Nelson helped form Water Partners International after becoming alarmed by the health impact of unclean water in some of the world’s poorest countries.

 

“In Ethiopia, I believe one in five children are dying before they reach the age of five. So, we are working in countries that have significant water issues,” she said “But there are so many countries that have severe water issues, I don’t want to paint a picture that we are working in the absolute worst places. I think it’s probably a tie among a lot of different countries where there are issues”.

Experts say there are both short term and long term measures that can be taken to prevent the spread of waterborne illnesses. In the short term, they say people should wash their hands as much as possible, use a latrine, even if it’s a hole in the ground, and boil water and store it.

 

For the long term, communities must have sources of clean drinking water Ms Smith-Nelson says up to 50 percent of places with unsafe drinking water once had systems that functioned, but they fell apart due to lack of maintenance. Her group helps rebuild water systems and shows local people how to set up local governing bodies to run them.

The organization has worked in communities in nations as diverse as Bangladesh and Honduras. One of the biggest systems that we funded involved 50 miles pipeline trench that was dug entirely by hand by the community itself,” she explained, which I think was a great example to me, and I think a great example to anybody who works with us, on the significance of these water systems, of how badly they’re wanted by the community, the fact that local people would put in two years of hard labour to dig the trench to get water  to their community.”

Analysts say eliminating disease and death due to unclean water and poor sanitation would reap billions of dollars in health productivity gains. They estimate that for every dollar spent, there would be an economic return of between $3and $34 dollars, depending upon the country.

 

The United Nations has set a goal of cutting in half by the year 2015 the number of people without access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation. Independent experts say that a concerted effort on the part of wealthier nations is necessary if that goal is to be reached, Compromising over 70% of the Earths surface, water is undoubtedly the most precious natural resource that exists on our planet. Without the seemingly invaluable compound comprised of hydrogen and oxygen, life on Earth would be non existent: it is essential for everything on our planet to grow and prosper. Although we as humans recognise this fact, we disregard it by polluting our rivers, lakes, and oceans. Subsequently, we are slowly but surely harming our planet to the point where organisms are dying at a very alarming rate. In addition to innocent organisms dying off, our drinking water has become greatly affected as is our ability to use water for recreational purposes. In order to combat water pollution, we must understand the problems and become part of the solution.

 

According to the American collage Dictionary, pollution is defined: as to make foul or unclean; dirty. Water pollution occurs when a body of water is adversely affected due to the addition of large amounts of materials to the water. When it is unfit for its intended use, water is considered polluted. Two types of water pollutants exist; point of source and non point source. Point sources of pollution occur when harmful substances are emitted directly into a body of water. The Exxon  Valdez oil spill best illustrates a point source water pollution. A non point source delivers pollutants indirectly through environmental changes. An example of this type of water pollution is when fertilizer from a field is carried into a stream by rain, in the form of run-off which in turn affects aquatic life. The technology exists for point sources of pollution to be monitored and regulated, although political factors my complicate matters. Non point sources are much more difficult to control. Pollution arising from non  point  sources accounts for a majority of the contaminants in streams and lakes.

 

CAUSES OF POLLUTION

 

Many causes of pollution including sewage and fertilizers contain nutrients such as nitrates and phosphates. In excess level, nutrients over stimulate the growth of aquatic plants and algae. Excessive growth of these types of organisms consequently clogs our waterways, use up dissolved oxygen as they decompose, and block light to deeper waters. This, in turn, proves very harmful to aquatic organisms as it affects the respiration ability or fish and other invertebrates that reside in water. The major sources of water pollution can be classified as municipal industrial, and agricultural. Municipal water pollution consists of waste water from homes and commercial establishments. For many years, the main goal of treating municipal waste water was simply to reduce its content of suspended solids, oxygen-demanding materials, dissolved inorganic compounds, and harmful bacteria. In recent years, however, more stress has been placed on improving means of disposal of the solid residues from the municipal treatment processes. The basic methods of treating municipal wastewater fall into three stages: primary treatment, including grit removal, screening grinding, and sedimentation; secondary treatment, which entails oxidation of dissolved organic matter by means of using biologically active sludge, which is then filtered off; and tertiary treatment, in which advanced biological methods of nitrogen removal and chemical and physical methods such as granular filtration and activated carbon absorption are employed.

 

 

 

 

 

It is a rare event when discoloured water appears at your home or work, but it does happen. There can be many reasons, but discoloured water usually originates in the water distribution systems. Corrosion or rusting of the interior surfaces of metal pipes is a primary source of discoloration and particles that can appear in your water. There are several possible situations that can cause this material to be dislodged. The most probable of these causes are listed below along with the steps you can take to deal with a temporary problem.

Distribution system causes main breaks: water is delivered to your home or business through a network of underground pipes referred to as the distribution system. The principal pipe or conduit is called a main. Water mains in this distribution  systems can fail due to age, corrosion, high pressure surges, defective materials, or damage by construction work. Fire hydrants can also be broken off by vehicles. When a main breaks, the increased velocity of the water and other materials that normally settle to the bottom of pipes .

 

Getting enough water is a major struggle in Darfur. A huge underground lake has been found in Sudan’s Darfur region, scientists say, which they believe could help end the conflict in the arid region. Some 1,000 wells will be drilled in the region, with the agreement of Sudan’s government. Analysts say competition for resources between Darfur’s Arab nomads and black African farmers is behind the conflict.

More than 200,000 Darfuris have died and 2m fled their homes since 2003.”Much of the unrest in Darfur and the misery is due to water shortages,” said geologist Farouk El-Baz, director of the Boston University centre for remote sensing, according to the AP news agency. “Access to fresh water is essential for refugee survival, will help the peace process, and provides the necessary resources for the much needed economic development in Darfur” he said. “The root cause of the conflict is resources-drought and desertification  in North Darfur.” This led the Arab nomads to move into South Darfur, where they came into conflict with black African farmers. It was also known that there’s water in the area but the government had not paid for it to be exploited.

 

 

Lack of clean water

 

Lack of  clean water kills 2m children a year .un report

A lack of access  clean water kills nearly  two million children a year and stunts prospects for economic growth in the worlds poorest countries, a new united nations report said,

More than 2, billion people do not have access to proper sanitation dirty water claims more lives than AIDS or conflicts, according to the UN human Development report, released in south Africa, Norway ,Iceland  and Australia topped the index, while the lowest 20 rated were all from Africa, Australia’s  south pacific neighbours did not rate well Papua  new guinea is the worse placed Pacifica nation, with a ranking of 139 out of 177 countries and territories.

 

The Solomon Islands was slightly better with a ranking of ey Adda128, with Fiji  at number 90 and Tonga  55^th, At the launch, south Africa president Thabo Mbeki said it was not possible to talk about development while people subsist without clean water and proper sanitation, we have duty to fight against domestic and global.     

                

 

 

According to the report more than 1.1 billion people in both urban and rural areas lack access to drinking water from an improved source and 2.6 billion people do not have access to even basic sanitation, notes the report.

Despite the arrival of the rainy season in the South Darfur the country is still faced with critical water shortages, International Committee of the  Red  Cross  reported’

War is senseless. As noted here many times before, countries with water shortages need to be helped by armies of world class land rights lawyers and water engineers to enable clean drinking water to be accessible where needed. Sudan is a country the size of Europe. For sure scientists say it face increasing water shortages (hence more fighting and killing over water holes, livestock, some people who have who have lived and worked in Sudan over 50 years ago, one described Sudan’s  ongoing crisis as “ too many people living in the wrong place” I fear he might or might  not be correct we don’t really know.

 

What happened in Darfur is that the people have been concentrated into these large camps around main villages, and the populations of the villages plus the camps have shot up. The boreholes are to support he added . Traditional coping mechanisms have broken down in the camps, where an unregulated amount of water supplied to residents. According to the report, 94% of the families questioned in Abou Shouk camp said they used more water in the camps than previously in their villages. Darfur characteristically has poor rainy seasons every few years-they are just a normal part of life of people generally will cope with it, said Geoff Wright a hydro- geologist who first worked in Darfur in 1971 , and also a contributor to the report. But in these present circumstances it is going to be very hard to cope with a poor rainy season in the major camps where they rely on limited resources as a way to supplement their food and spending money. Free water obviously, provides residents with an opportunity through brick-making and selling water to generate an income. Now that, that has happened the demand goes up quite considerably, said Day consumption unsustainable.

 

Yet the underlying mechanisms of aquifer recharge the rate at which groundwater is replenished every year beneath the camps is not sufficiently understood, according to the report. The UN Children’s Fund (UNICEF) began monitoring groundwater   levels at 50 sites around Darfur. The results to date have reinforced the belief that current consumption patterns would be unsustainable in a drought year. The rock underlying much of Darfur, known as basement complex, is often unable to store large amounts of water. The water that does exist underground is found in cracks and is only refilled during the three month rainy season. Studies of rainfall in three regional capitals of Darfur in the report show highly variable annual levels, but slightly above- average levels in the past four years since the beginning of the camps. It must be expected that another poor rainy season could occur at any time, and NGOs and national authorities need to plan accordingly. 

 

 

Darfur aid crisis  :As aid groups are expelled, camps soon may lack resources. As villagers, drink clean water in the Zam Zam camp for displaced people in Darfur. Water  is one of the key resources that many of the ousted aid groups have been providing to refugee camps, officials say (Lynsey Addario/photo for the Angeles Times/

ZAM ZAM CAMP, Sudan Feverish and dehydrated since fleeing to this overcrowded displacement camp last month,

2-year old Manahel Abakar was supposed to be one of the beneficiaries of the international criminal court’s effort to bring justice to Darfur, Instead she became one of its unintended casualties.

 

The little girl died last week on a straw mat under the baking sun, surrounded by anxious family members helpless to save her. The situation at the Zam Zam camp hard even in the best of times, is more desperate because the aid groups that deliver emergency food, water and health care were shut down this month by Sudan’s government in retaliation after ICC issued an arrest warrant  Presiden Omar al-Bashir.              

The situation of children in and women in the Darfur region of Sudan remains tenuous. The civil conflict that began in 2003 has killed up to 450,000 people and driven 1,8million people from their homes. UNICEF is currently providing   humanitarian assistance to 2 million vulnerable children, who represent over percent of the regions population. These photos begin to speak to the broad range of services necessary for kids to survive in camps.

Below, children and women are filling jerrycans with clean water from a UNICEF-provided Mark II- type  handpump at Ardamata Camp for displaced people, on the outskirts of El-Geneina. UNICEF has helped ensure that the 60 percent of conflict –affected population in Darfur has access to clean water, and 50 percent to improved sanitation. But water-borne diseases such as diarrhoea  and cholera are still responsible for- one third of under five deaths in the region 

 

In the dusty, crowded camps for people displayed in Zalingei, West Darfur, the living situation for the 58,000 new residents is almost unbearable. Children sit on the dirt ground covered with flies. They have long ago given up exerting the energy to swat them away. When the sun sets sand the heat finally subsides, the mosquitoes come in swarms, carrying the deadly malaria virus. In a rapid assessment of the camps in Zalingei conducted in August of this year by Mercy Corps, 90% of the camp residents surveyed reported  cases of malaria, while 85%   reported cases of diarrhoea . The United Nations World Health Organisation (WHO) recently reported that there has been a dramatic increase in Hepatitis E in Zalingei. From September 12 through October 9, there have been 449 new cases of Hepatitis E reported.

 

“There is dire need for more hygiene materials such as soap, as well as washing facilities, latrines, proper waste disposal and general community training on hygiene issues”, says Abdi Mohamud, Mercy Corps’ Hygiene Promoter working in Darfur. Many of the health problems residents have in the camps are avoidable with proper hygiene and sanitation and access to adequate clean drinking water”.

Mercy Corps is actively working in Zalingei, Darfur to combat out break of deadly water related diseases by constructing latrines, digging shallow wells or boreholes to complement existing emergency water interventions, and carrying out an educational campaign to ensure camp residents understand the importance of good hygiene.

“Previously the people in the camps lived in open, rural areas where the population density was much lower and sanitation and hygiene was not a major issue,” says Abdi Mohamud. “Now thousands of people are living side-by-in makeshift tents and inadequate waste disposal and hygiene  life threatening issues.” The water and environmental and environmental sanitation sector is greatly underserved  in Zalingei. According  to Mercy Corps’ rapid assessment over 59% of the population are in need of clean drinking water, while 99%  of the population are in need of sanitation facilities.

 

United Nations human rights officials have arrived in the shattered Darfur region of Sudan to examine how to shield civilians there from further militia attacks. At the UN World Health Organisation issued new guidelines to ensure the safety of drinking water supplies in the Darfur refugee camps. In this arid land on the edge of the Sahara desert, supplying safe water is the greatest challenge to aid workers.

 

THE CAUSES OF THE PROBLEMS AND SITUATION

 

The violence in Darfur has complex roots in traditional conflicts between Arab nomadic herders and African farmers, the violence intensified during 2003 when two groups-the Sudan Liberation Movement and the Justice and Equality Movement-declared open rebellion against the government of Sudan because they feared being on the outside of the power and wealth sharing agreements that were being arranged in the north-south negotiations. It is that the government of Sudan supported the jingaweit, directly and indirectly, as they carried out a scorched –earth policy toward the rebels and the African civilian population in Darfur.

 

A recent survey taken by the U.S State Department officials interviewed 1,136 randomly selected refugees in 19 locations in eastern Chad. Sixty one percent had witnessed the killing of a family member. Four fifths had witnessed the destruction of their homes. Over and over again, said Ambassador Danforth interviewers heard the same story.

Government aircraft start the attacks by bombing villages; government soldiers arrive in trucks followed by Jingaweit on horse back. They surround and then enter the villages-guns blazing;  they shoot and bomb fleeing villagers; they loot and destroy the villages often shouting racial epithets and curses as they proceed with their acts of destruction. They leave behind them nothing but devastation and death. And, importantly, nine in 10 of the refugees said they  had witnessed no rebel activity in the areas so mercilessly attacked by the government and the and the Jinjaweed. These are indiscriminate acts of violence and terror.

Secretary of State Powell told the Congressional hearing that this evidence leads the United States to conclude that the government of Sudan may be condoning and perpetrating genocide.

 

But said Powell, applying the word genocide to the events in Darfur does not guarantee the victims will receive the help they need.

Some seem to have been waiting for this determination of genocide to take action.” Powell said. “In fact, however, no new action is dictated by this determination.”

“ Call it civil war; call it ethnic cleansing; call it genocide; call it “none of the above” said Powell .The reality is that people in  Darfur who desperately need help of the international community.

                

 

Sudan’s cholera

 

As the globe marks the World Water Day, millions worldwide continue to suffer due to the lack of water or scarcity of clean water resources. The UN says that every year, some 1.8 million children die as a result of diarrhoea and other diseases caused by unclean water and poor sanitation UNMIS.

A cholera break in south Sudan has claimed 52 lives with more than 2,000 cases of deadly disease which spreads rapidly through brimming urban centres, the World Health Organisation said on Saturday.

The disease, identified   as cholera, has infected 2,0929 people in the towns of Yei and the regional capital Juba, and aid agencies are  rushing to prevent the outbreak spreading to neighboring towns. ‘Chlorination of public water supplies have begun and emergency stocks of rehydration supplies have been pre positioned at all high- risk points,’ WHO said in a statement sent to Reuters on Saturday. Cholera causes rapid rehydration which can cause death and is spread through unclean water. Two-thirds of south Sudan’s population drinks unsafe water. The death toll has almost doubled in the past week.

 

After 2005 peace deal which ended Africa’s longest civil war in Sudan’s south, hundreds of thousands of people have been returning home. They have flocked to urban centres whose already creaking infra-structures are unable to cope with the extra burden. 

Receiving most of its lifeline water supply from the Nile River, the country is suffering from water related natural hazards, diseases and conflict, which put heavy sustainable socio- economy development and have led to deepening poverty.

 

Sudan has an agrarian economy: farming and animal husbandry are the mainstay of 80%of the population. Agriculture accounts for 34%of GDP. Live stock raising contributed about half the agricultural GDP in 19982001(Central) Bureau statistics,( 2003). Industrial generated 18% of GDP in 2001. Of an estimated 0.84 million km2 of potentially arable land some 0.17 million km2, or 20%, was in use as of 2002. The irrigated area totals around 0.02 million km2, or a modest 12% of the cultivated land area, but consumes about 20 billion m3 of water approximately equal to Sudan’s share of the Nile River flow(Box 1.2). Agricultural water consumption is expected increase significantly, and likely to double by 2025.

 

Although irrigation efficiency is high, a considerable amount of water is lost to evaporation and because of poor maintenance of irrigation systems. Water rates for irrigation are based on the extent of cultivated area rather than the actual quantity used. This approach, coupled with a lack of clarity about the role of farmers in the irrigation system, exacerbates the already high water consumption. Adoption of rainwater harvesting techniques could contribute significantly to improvement in agriculture and live stock production. The incidence of rural poverty is quite high, issue closely linked to national agricultural strategy. In the 1970’s Sudan introduce large scale mechanized farming and promoted expansion of the irrigated area to increase output, especially of cash crops.

 

The new farming systems and land allocation policies led to displacement of subsistence farmers and nomads, and dismantled traditional systems of communal ownership and management (IFAD,2008).Sudan is rapidly urbanizing: the share of urban dwellers in the population increased from 27% in 1990 to 42% in 2006 (WHO/UNICEF, 2008) . Household water consumption is estimated at 1.1 billion m3. save water and improve sanitation coverage is based towards urban settlement. In 2006, the percentage of population with access to save water supply was 78% in urban areas and 64 % in rural ones. The disparity is even greater for access to improve sanitation, which is available to 50% of urban dwellers but only 24% in rural areas. (WHO/UNICEF,2008). Consequently, water-related communicable diseases, particularly malaria, diarrhoeal illnesses, are among the leading causes of morbidity, especially in the North, and they are exacerbated by wide spread Malaria is epidemic: some 75% of the population nationwide is at risk (WHO, 2008a). In 2007 alone, over 2.7 million cases were reported and nearly 6%of all hospital deaths were linked to malaria (WHO,2008b).

 

Pollution from households, agriculture and industry seriously threatens the quality of fresh water resources. In many places, such as southern and western Sudan, where the groundwater table is only a few metres below the surface, sanitation practices (mainly on-site disposal systems such as septic tanks and pit latrines) and improper urban waste disposal have caused very high chemical and bacteriological contamination. Almost all disposal wells and pit latrines tap the water table, and they are often within 10to 20 metres of wells used for drinking water.

 

Thanks to the Nile River and its tributaries, Sudan has an estimated hydropower potential of 9 GW, with development f 5 GW being economically feasible. Yet, the hydroelectric production capacity of the four existing multipurpose dams is only 0.335 GW. Sudan’s total electricity production capacity (thermal and hydroelectric combined) of 1.2 GW (2004) does not meet demand, and in fact is greater than the country’s limited distribution capacity. A major factor limiting the development of irrigation in Sudan is the poor storage capacity of existing dams. Furthermore, siltation has reduced the design capacity of the dams by one-third, from 9.1 billion m3. Enhancing reservoir capacity is critical to assure food security, since about 85% of the annual water potential of the Nile River flows from July to September and for the rest of the year the flow is very low, especially in the Blue Nile, in whose vicinity70% of the irrigated area is located.

 

The Nile and its tributaries have always been used for transport. At present, around 1,700km of the waterways are navigated, but this could be substantially improved. Until 1977 the River Transport Cooperation of Sudan had one of the largest fleets in Africa, but continuous deterioration since then has reduced the fleet to only about 10% of its former size (2005).Waterway navigation is not considered a priority; the service is mainly between the north and the south, and has never been significantly extended to other parts of the country. Moreover, a lack of coordination among relevant authorities has meant no consideration is given for navigation when major structures such as dams and bridges are built.

 

The Experience: Challenges and solutions

Cycle of Poverty, droughts, floods and conflict: Sudan, like other countries of the Sahel, has long suffered from lengthy, devastating droughts. The most severe droughts of recent decades occurred in 1980 1984, 1989,1990 1997 and 2000, causing widespread population displacement and famine. In addition, floods in Sudan have caused extensive damage, especially around the Nile and its main tributary, the Blue Nile. Severe floods on the latter river in 1988 and 1998 caused property losses estimated at hundreds of millions of dollars. Flooding of the Nile proper in 2007 affected over 500,000 people and destroyed thousands of homes(WHO,2008a). Seasonal rivers can also cause serious flood damage.

 

In 2003, for example, heavy flooding along the Gash River affected 79%of the city of Kassala, leaving 80%of the population homeless, and inflicted heavy losses on agriculture in the region (NASA,2008).It is estimated that 85% of Sudan’s rural population lives on less than US$1per day. Overall, some20 million people were living In extreme poverty in 2002(IFAD, 20080).The incidence of poverty varies considerably because economic growth is geographically uneven and conflict has devastated parts of the country. Severe regional inequalities exist in access to even the most basic services, such as education, sanitation, safe drinking water and job opportunities. For example, health services in southern Sudan reach only about 25% of the population. People living in areas that have been or continue to be affected by drought and conflict particularly the south and Darfur are the most vulnerable to poverty (IFAD, 2008). As of late 2007, 4.2 million people were affected by conflict, including 2.4 million internally displaced as a result of the conflict in Darfur(WHO,2008a).

 

Biodiversity

 

There is little public awareness or political sensitivity about ecosystem protection in Sudan. Since the 1970s, expansion of large-scale rain-fed agriculture, urbanization and other types of development have caused the destruction of over 5,000 km2 of forest, and the extent of reforestation amounts to just 300 km2.

 

 

METHODS OF SOLUTION

 

Although Africa possesses water resources of over five trillion cubic metres a year, only 3,8%f this figure has been developed some 300m people in Africa do not have access to   water is Africa’s number one.

 

The latest UNDP report warns that climate change could have a devastating impact on water supplies in Africa. Population growth and increasing water scarcity are a dangerous combination, particularly in a region that is already fairing to provide adequate water supplies. However, technological advances could help many countries to make the most of the resources that they do posses and indeed mitigate effects of global warming.

 

According to the report from the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), 1.8bn more people, mainly in Africa and other developing regions, will be faced with water scarcity by 2080 while increasingly irregular rainfall patterns will make planning in the sector more difficult. The report was produced for the international climate change talks and is based upon the best scientific information currently available. The report’s lead Author , Kevin Waddns, said: ”Nobody wants to understate the very real long term ecological challenges that climate change will bring to rich countries. But the near term vulnerabilities are not concentrated in lower Manhattan and London, but in flood prone areas of Bangladesh and drought prone parts of sub-Saharan Africa. Allowing the widow of opportunity to close would represent a moral and political failure without precedence in human history”.

 

Africa’s water supply situation is already dire. Per capita water storage capacity in every African country is just a fraction of that available in North America or Europe, yet the continent’s high temperatures and irregular rainfall patterns mean that African reserves should perhaps be even higher. The problem is exacerbated by the lack of investment in new reservoirs and in water pipelines. Even in parts of relatively developed South Africa, 40% of all water piped is lost in transmission through leaks.

 

According to the African Development Bank (AFDB), Africa possesses abundant fresh water resources of about 5.4 trillion cubic metres a year yet  just 3.8% of this figure has so far been developed and 300m Africans lack access to safe drinking water.

 

As a result, the world Health Organisation reports that half of all Africans suffer from one of six water related diseases. Part of the problem is that rainfall distribution is very unequal and evaporation rates very high.

The United Nations argues that $20bn needs to be invested in African water infrastructure every year for the next 20 years to ensure universal water supplies. The scale of the task seems impossible even without the added challenge of climate change. Until relatively recently, the debate on African water provision, at least in urban areas, resolved around whether private sector or public sector control was most appropriate.

 

 The water and waste-water infrastructure of most African cities was developed during the colonial era and often does not extend far beyond the original city centres. Although water services. Although water services can have more of an impact on health and living standards than any other form of infrastructure, investment has often been neglected, possibly in part because the water sector does not provide photo opportunities for ambitious politicians.

 

As a result state, owned water companies in most African countries generally failed to extend the provision of water and waste services to the continent’s rapidly growing suburbs. The IMF, World Bank and other multilateral encouraged governments to transfer the control of water  sector services to private sector companies. As with rail, port and power sector services, it was hoped that private firms would operate more efficiently, while gradually improving the reach of water supply networks.

Strong Passions and solution

                

However, opposition to the idea of companies making profits out of the supply of water to poor people has been substantial. While the sight of small-scale street vendors selling water is very common in Africa, the concept of foreign companies doing the same thing aroused strong passions.

 

In the face of powerful trades union in opposition, the Nigerian government of Ex- President Olusegun Obasanjo struggled for years to complete the tender process for the Lagos State Water Cooperation, while thousands of people in the Nelspruit area of Mpumalanga Province of South Africa refused to pay their water bills to British water  company Biwater. Biwater has also been at the heart of perhaps the most high profile concession on the continent. It took many years to complete the tender process of Dar es Salaam, Water and Sewerage Authority (Dawasa) but a private company led by Biwater and German firm Gauff Ingenieure eventually secured a 10-year contract to operate water services and waste water services in the city in 2003.

Although it was widely billed as a privatisation in the East African Press, the actual water infrastructure remained the property of the state. However, less than two years into the contract, the Tanzanian government cancelled the deal and brought Dawasa back under state control. It complained that water supplies had become increasingly erratic and argued that insufficient progress had been made on extending the water grid. The consortium denied the claims and said that it would have needed more time to implement the required improvements. However many non governmental organisations welcomed the decision, arguing that water services need to be publicly controlled. The publicity surrounding the case appeared to deter many companies from bidding for other African water companies.

Nevertheless, the water debate has moved on from the pros and cons of concessions towards the best method of coping with climate change.

 

 

Although French firms, such as Suez, continue to successfully operate water services  in North Africa, there seems no prospect that privatisation or fixed term contracts can help to solve urban water supply problems in Africa, never mind the equally challenging task of ensuring that Africans African’s in rural areas –who despite rapid urbanisation, still make up 62% of the continent’s population-have access to safe  drinking water.

 

Technological Solutions

 

Despite all the signs of doom and gloom, dozens of technological innovations are helping people across the continent to make the most of the water that they can access.

Tanzania, a perennial favourite for development schemes of all types, has attracted more man its fair share. In Kilimanjaro region, near the Kenyan border, water from processing coffee beans is highly acidic and so can harm the soils fertility and cause severe environmental damage. However, the water’s acid can now being used to produce methane gas, which can men be used to power machinery on the plantations. The money saved can be used to develop more efficient irrigation schemes. The system has been developed by TechnoServe. A company spokesperson said: The process is straightforward. Waste water which would otherwise be thrown away is being used to create energy which cost the farmer nothing”.

Further south, near Ruaha, the local piped water is not clean enough to drink. However, a very low tech method of purifying spring water has now been introduced by aid agency Plan International. The water needs only to be heated to 50C to kill the local dangerous bacteria and placing the water in bottles on the roofs of house is sufficient to heat it to this temperature.

 

Local people previously boiled the water using firewood but this wood can be saved. Solar purification is cheap and so could easily be employed across Africa. A wider education programme is needed to promote technology.

More high-tech solar technology is also helping to power water pumps in Eastern Africa. In Kenya, the Davis and Shirtliff Group has developed the Grundfos SQFlex water pump, which can be powered by solar panels, wind turbines or a combination of both technologies. It can therefore be employed in areas that do not have access to the national grid. The pump is following the footsteps of the solar powered radios and refrigerators that have become common in some regions. At the other end of the scale, more expensive solutions are being sought to supply large volumes of water. In countries like Namibia where rainfall is scarce and reliable water courses few and far between, piped water has been very expensive to supply. However, following in the footsteps of many countries in the Middle East. Desalination plants are now to be developed on the coast to process salt water into liquid suitable for drinking.

In November, Nam Water and UraMin Namibia announced that they had set up a joint venture to develop to desalination plants in Swakopmund.

The Managing director of Nam water, Vaino Shivute, said: ”This indicates that the planned facility will be capable of supporting substantial economic growth in the region.”

 

Desalinated water tends to be more expensive than most traditional sources of supply but Nam water promises that tarrifs will not be affected. In a statement, the company revealed “Namibia’s seawater can be effectively and economically desalinated on a large scale”.

The case demonstrates that each country must find it’s own answers to the problems of water supply. New technologies will provide part of the solution but overall investment whether from private or public sources-must be increased.

Water services can have more of an Impact on health and living standards that any other form of infrastructure. 

 

CONCLUSION

 

As Africa’s population rises, demand for household water is projected to grow faster than anywhere else on the planet, living up to 523-million people without access to clean water by 2025 unless governments invest in better infrastructure.

Irrigation Pump Unites Village and empowers people to manage safe reliable water.

 

Clean drinking water is a lifesaver in Mali, Konodimini had serious potable water problems. For years, five small pumps served a village of 3,500. Half the time the pumps were broken. Even when all five pumps were working they were never able to produce enough clean drinking water for the entire village, or irrigate vegetable gardens that were an important food source. Each neighbourhood guarded its pump jealously. When the pump broke, they had to ask another neighbourhood to help them out and request was not always granted when water was scarce. There was bickering over water, and it divided the people in the village.

 

The pump provides enough water for 600 people a day (at 20 litres per person-that’s three to four times the amount of water from one borehole that a hand pump can produce. USAID expects diarrhea in the village to be reduced by 90%

The villagers of Konodimini demonstrate how well the clean water runs from their new SolarPedalflo pump.

Effective and transparent governance was a problem, particularly when it came to managing the water supply. In Mali, lack of lack of clean drinking water leads to potentially diseases like cholera and diarrhea which is the second highest cause of death among infants. Many villages in this mostly desert country were experiencing the same kind of drinking water problems. In Mali,113 Out of every 1000 infants die before their first birthday. To  address its water challenges, USAID formed a partnership with moving Water Industries, the West African Water initiative(WAWI), THE Government of Mali, and local community leaders to provide and adequate and reliable supply of potable water to villages desperately in need.

 

USAID Invested over $490,000 and secured over a $570,000  more from private industry, non-governmental organizations and the government of Mali in a public- alliance to help bring clean drinking water to over 48, 000 rural Malians. The money was used to work with villages in introducing a new, sturdier kind of water pump powered by the sun villagers’ own feet: the solarpedalflo. When the people of Kinodimini were told that the village would  be an active participant in not only installing but also managing the new pump, they readily  agreed. Konodimini immediately formed an oversight committee, comprised of both men and women, that would take responsibility for the proper functioning and mantainance of the pump. They drafted bylaws, established a price-per-bucket policy, and identified when certain groups would have access to the pump for example, women in early morning and at dusk.

 

This was the first time that the entire village actually put together a management plan-they were in fact governing. Two men, who hadn’t spoken to each other in years, were serving on the oversight committee together and were talking. Pride replaced jealousy. The pump united the village. With the much  increased, reliable water flow, the women decided to greatly expand their vegetable garden from just a small plot to a full hectare. The garden provides an excellent source of nutritious food for the village. The surplus vegetables are sold in a nearby market. The proceeds will pay for school fees, medical supplies and more seeds.  

 

 

Publishers

 

24 Heures (Abidjan)

Francophone daily

Accra Mail( a daily newspaper published from Monday to Thursday

Addis Fortune

Africa Focus (Washington, DC)

Agence Net Press (Bujumbura)

Alliance for a green revolution in Africa (Nairobi)

Agencia de Informacao de Mocambique (Maputo)

Altervision (Abidjan)

Angola press agency (Luanda)

Business Day (Johannesburg)

The Daily monitor (Addis Ababa)

Daily Trust (Abuja)

Inter Press service (Johannesburg)